Online Child Sexual Exploitation And Abuse As Organized Crime: Towards a New International Legal Framework
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.23969/litigasi.v27i1.43221Keywords:
Online Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse, Child Sexual Abuse Materials, Transnational Organized Crime, Darknet, International Legal FrameworksAbstract
Online child sexual exploitation and abuse (OCSEA) has developed as an important manifestation of transnational organized crime, constituting a systematic violation of children's fundamental rights under international law. This study considers the structural transformation of OCSEA — starting from local, offline incidents to coordinated darknet operations characterized by hierarchical criminal networks, role specialization, cryptocurrency-based financial flows, and cross-border coordination. Employing a doctrinal legal approach, blended with comparative jurisdictional analysis and concrete review of law enforcement data, this research carefully evaluates the capacity of existing international legal regimes to address OCSEA as organized crime. The analysis shows substantial normative and institutional deficiencies across key international instruments — including UNTOC, the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Budapest Convention on Cybercrime, the Lanzarote Convention, and relevant ASEAN frameworks — encompassing definitional inconsistencies, fragmented jurisdictional authority, inadequately harmonized criminal standards, and enforcement gaps that organized criminal networks systematically exploit. The study further shows that OCSEA satisfies the defining criteria of transnational organized crime, as offenders across multiple jurisdictions collaborate in the production, distribution, and financial exploitation of child sexual abuse material (CSAM) through advanced technical infrastructure. Accordingly, this research develops a normative argument for a binding global legal framework that standardizes criminal definitions, establishes universal jurisdiction, strengthens cross-border cooperation, and institutionalizes international monitoring. In doing so, it contributes theoretically by reconceptualizing OCSEA within the transnational organized crime paradigm, and normatively by proposing a coherent direction for international legal reform.
Downloads
References
Alejandro Morales, S., & Castillo, A. (2025). The Case of Gender Violence in Mexico: Does the Judicial System Ensure Substantive Justice for Victims? ¿Garantiza el Sistema Judicial la Justicia Sustantiva para las Víctimas? (Vol. 1). https://publications.socipol.org/index.php/cjs/index
Ali, S., Haykal, H. A., & Youssef, E. Y. M. (2023). Child Sexual Abuse and the Internet—A Systematic Review. Human Arenas, 6(2), 404–421. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42087-021-00228-9
BBC, U. (2014, January 16). Philippines web abuse ring smashed in UK-ledoperation. BBC UK. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-25749326.
Broadhurst, R., & Ball, M. (2023). How the World’S Biggest Dark Web Platform Spreads Millions of Items of Child Sex Abuse Material — and Why It’s Hard to Stop. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4364472
Broadhurst, R., Grabosky, P., Alazab, M., & Chon, S. (2014). Organizations and Cyber crime: An Analysis of the Nature of Groups engaged in Cyber Crime. In International Journal of Cyber Criminology (Vol. 8, Number 1). http://www.verizonenterprise.com/resources/reports/rp_data-
Brodowski, D. (2016). International Law and Transnational Organized Crime (P. Hauck & S. Peterke, Eds.). OxfordAcademic. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198733737.003.0016
Chainalysis Team. (2020). Making Cryptocurrency Part of the Solution to Human Trafficking. Chainalysis. https://www.chainalysis.com/blog/cryptocurrency-human-trafficking-2020/.
Chainalysis Team. (2025, July 28). Chainalysis Identifies Large CSAM Website Using Cryptocurrency. Chainalysis. https://www.chainalysis.com/blog/chainalysis-identifies-large-csam-website-using-cryptocurrency-july-2025/
Comolli, V. (2025). Organized Child Sexual Exploitation. Addressing Motives and Response Need in South East Asia. https://globalinitiative.net/analysis/organized-child-sexual-exploitation/.
Criminal Division. (2023, August 11). Child Pornography. US Dept of Justice. https://www.justice.gov/criminal/criminal-ceos/child-pornography.
Dearden, T. E., & Tucker, S. E. (2023). Follow the Money: Analyzing Darknet Activity Using Cryptocurrency and the Bitcoin Blockchain. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 39(2), 257–275. https://doi.org/10.1177/10439862231157521
Demarco, J., Sharrock, S., Crowther, T., & Barnard, M. (2018). Behaviour and Characteristics of Perpetrators of Online-facilitated Child Sexual Abuse and Exploitation A Rapid Evidence Assessment Final Report. www.iicsa.org.uk.
ECPAT, I. and UNICEF. (2022). Disrupting Harm in the Philippines: Evidence on online child sexual exploitation and abuse, Global Partnership to End Violence Against Children. https://www.unicef.org/philippines/media/7396/file/Disrupting%20Harm%20in%20the%20Philippines.pdf
EUROPOL. (2025). Child Sexual Exploitation. EUROPOL. https://www.europol.europa.eu/crime-areas/child-sexual-exploitation.
Finklea, K. (2017). Dark Web Kristin Finklea Specialist in Domestic Security. www.crs.gov
Fleck, A. (2023). Online Child Pornography Skyrockets. Statista.Com. statista.com/chart/30964/
Gannon, C., Blokland, A. A. J., Huikuri, S., Babchishin, K. M., & Lehmann, R. J. B. (2023). Child sexual abuse material on the darknet. Forensische Psychiatrie, Psychologie, Kriminologie, 17(4), 353–365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11757-023-00790-8
Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime. (2014). Stollen innocence,The Online Sexual Exploitation of Children. GlobalInitiativeAgainstTransnationalOrganizedCrime. https://globalinitiative.net/analysis/stolen-innocence-the-online-exploitation-of-children/
Gottfried, E. D., Shier, E. K., & Mulay, A. L. (2020). Child Pornography and Online Sexual Solicitation. Current Psychiatry Reports, 22(3), 10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-020-1132-y
Greijer, S., & Doek, J. (2025). TERMINOLOGY GUIDELINES FOR THE PROTECTION OF CHILDREN FROM SEXUAL EXPLOITATION AND SEXUAL ABUSE.
Holt, T. J., Smirnova, O., Chua, Y. T., & Copes, H. (2015). Examining the risk reduction strategies of actors in online criminal markets. Global Crime, 16(2), 81–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/17440572.2015.1013211
Hout, M. C. Van, & Bingham, T. (2013). ‘Surfing the Silk Road’: A study of users’ experiences. International Journal of Drug Policy, 24(6), 524–529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2013.08.011
Huikuri, S. (2023). Users of Online Child Sexual Abuse Material. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 38(4), 904–913. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-023-09611-4
Humas KPAI. (2024). Laporan Tahunan KPAI 2024, Jalan Terjal Perlindungan Anak: Ancaman Serius Generasi Emas Indonesia.
Ibrahim, D. (2022, May 12). Online child sexual exploitation and abuse in Canada: A statistical profile of police-reported incidents and court charges, 2014 to 2020 . Juristat: Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/ pub/85-002-x/2022001/article/00008-eng.htm
Inhope. (2022). What is CSAM? Inhope. https://www.inhope.org/EN/articles/what-is-csam
Inhope. (2024). Annual Report 2024.
Internet Watch Foundation. (2021). Annual Reports 2021. https://annualreport2021.iwf.org.uk/trends/darkwebreports
Internet Watch Foundation. (2024). IWF Annual Data and Insights Report 2024. . https://www.iwf.org.uk/annual-data-insights-report-2024/
Jenkins, P. (2001). Beyond Tolerance: Child pornography on the internet. New York University Press . https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/beyond-tolerance-child-pornography-internet
Khera, V. (2020, November 2). Darkweb & Internet Anonymity: Exploring The Hidden Internet. Cyber Protection Magazine. https://cyberprotection-magazine.com/darkweb-internet-anonymity-exploring-the-hidden-internet
KPAI. (2021). Data Kasus Perlindungan Anak 2016 – 2020. https://bankdata.kpai.go.id/tabulasi-data/data-kasus-perlindungan-anak-2016-2020
Kusumawardhani, D. L. L. H. N., & Wulandari, S. (2024). Strategy for Handling the Crime of Child Sexual Exploitation on the Era of Globalization by The State Police of The Republic of Indonesia (POLRI). 92–95. https://doi.org/10.2991/978-2-38476-325-2_11
Lavorgna, A., & Sergi, A. (2016). Serious, therefore Organised? A Critique of the Emerging “Cyber-Organised Crime” Rhetoric in the United Kingdom. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 10(2), 170–187. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.163400/IJCC
Leukfeldt, E. R., Lavorgna, A., & Kleemans, E. R. (2017). Organised Cybercrime or Cybercrime that is Organised? An Assessment of the Conceptualisation of Financial Cybercrime as Organised Crime. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 23(3), 287–300. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-016-9332-z
Livingstone, S., Carr, J., & Byrne, J. (2016). OneinThree: InternetGovernance andChildren’sRights. www.unicef-irc.org
Lusthaus, J. (2013). How organised is organised cybercrime? Global Crime, 14(1), 52–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/17440572.2012.759508
Maharani, N., Widagdo, S., Istiqomah, M., & Puspi-Tawati, D. (2026). Criminal Liability and the Non Punishment Principle for Trafficking Victims in Indonesia. Jurnal IUS Kajian Hukum Dan Keadilan, 14. https://doi.org/10.29303/ius.v14i1.1820
Mardin, N., Purnamasari, A. I., Miqat, N., Kharismawan, A., & Nur, R. (2022). Comparative Law Study: Sentencing of Sexual Violence Perpetrators Who have Deviant Sexual Behavior. Jambura Law Review, 4(02), 227–245. https://tirto.id/komnas-perempuan-kasus-kekerasan-naik-2-kali-lipat-pada-2021-gmfy
Ministry of Justice. Home Office. (2025, July 1). Crime and Policing Bill : Child Sexual Abuse Materials Factsheet. Ministry of Justice. Home Office. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/crime-and-policing-bill-2025-factsheets/crime-and-policing-bill-child-sexual-abuse-material-factsheet
Motoyama, M., McCoy, D., Levchenko, K., Savage, S., & Voelker, G. M. (2011). An analysis of underground forums. Proceedings of the 2011 ACM SIGCOMM Conference on Internet Measurement Conference, 71–80. https://doi.org/10.1145/2068816.2068824
National Centre of Missing or Exploited Children (NCMEC). (2024). CyberTipline report . https://www.missingkids.org/content/dam/missingkids/pdfs/2023-CyberTipline-Report.pdf
Novianti, & Chusairi, A. (2024). Online Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (OCSEA) of Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Literature Review. Psikologika : Jurnal Pemikiran Dan Penelitian Psikologi, 29(2), 281–306.
Nuridah, S., Nong, A. S., Ismail, N., Bin Mustaffa, A., Binti Bidin, A., & Taher, M. A. (2025). From Misbehaviour to Courtroom: Analyzing Malaysia’s Legal Approach to Children Beyond Parental Control. Jambe Law Journal, 8(2), 443–474. https://doi.org/10.22437/jlj.8.2.443-474
Office of Research-Innocenti. (2019). Global Kids Online: Growing up in a connected world How do children’s online experiences affect their rights and well-being? https://www.unicef.org/innocenti/reports/global-kids-online-growing-connected-world
Owen, G., & Savage, N. (2015). The Tor Dark Net.
Rainn. (2025). What is CSAM? Rainn.Org. https://rainn.org/get-the-facts-about-csam-child-sexual-abuse-material/what-is-csam/.
Salter, M., & Mason, Julie. (2007). Writing law dissertations : an introduction and guide to the conduct of legal research. Pearson/Longman.
Santoso, L., & Musyayyadah, U. R. (2025). Challenging Legal Injustice against Children in Incest Cases: A Progressive and Islamic Human Rights Approach. De Jure: Jurnal Hukum Dan Syar’iah, 17(2), 675–696. https://doi.org/10.18860/j-fsh.v17i2.36277
Savage, L. (2024). Online child sexual exploitation: A statistical profile of police-reported incidents in Canada, 2014 to 2022. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2024001/article/00003-eng.htm
Septianita, H., & Rachmie, S. (2024). Cyber Space: A Dangerous World for Children (Analysis on Transnational Online Child Pornography). International Journal of Latin Notary, 5(1), 5–10. https://doi.org/10.61968/journal.v5i1.82
Simabura, C., Arinanto, S., Indrati, M. F., Isra, S., & Arsil, F. (2023). Ministerial Authority in Formulating Regulations Related to Presidential Lawmaking Doctrine. Constitutional Review, 9(2), 297–331. https://doi.org/10.31078/consrev924
Suprapto, D. P., Faslukil, M., & Triyana, Y. (2023). Indonesia’s Role in Preventing Transnational Cyber Pornography of Children in the Southeast Asian Region Viewed From a Political Law Approach. International Journal of Social Science and Human Research, 06(06), 3871–3877. https://doi.org/10.47191/ijsshr/v6-i6-83
UNODC. (2014). Protecting the Future: Responding to Child Sex Offending in Southeast Asia. www.unodc.org
US Immigration and Customs Enforcement. (2014, January 15). US Immigration and Customs Enforcement, 29 arrested in international case involving live online webcam child abuse. US Immigration and Customs Enforcement. https://www.ice.gov/news/releases/29-arrested-international-case-involving-live-online-webcam-child-abuse,
van der Bruggen, M., & Blokland, A. (2021). Child Sexual Exploitation Communities on the Darkweb: How Organized Are They? In W. Kranenbarg & R. Leukfeldt (Eds.), Cybercrime in Context (pp. 259–280). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-60527-8_15
von Lampe, K. (2016). Organized Crime. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781506305110
von Lampe, K. (2026). Criminal network analysis and the study of organized crime*. Global Crime, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/17440572.2026.2617567
Voziki, V. (2021). Cyber-enabled child sexual exploitation and sexual abuse: Fighting for children’s dignity and safety . https://repository.ihu.edu.gr/xmlui/ handle/11544/29851
We Protect Global Alliance. (2024). Child Sexual Abuse Materials. We Protect Global Alliance. https://www.weprotect.org/thematic/child-sexual-abuse-material/
Submitted
Accepted
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 LITIGASI
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Jurnal LITIGASI utilizes the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC-BY 4.0) to facilitate the broad dissemination and reuse of scholarly work. Authors retain copyright of their research while granting the journal the right of first publication. Under this license, others are permitted to share, copy, and adapt the material, provided that the original authorship and initial publication in this journal are properly cited.
